Total Quality Management Tools
- Define the subject upon which the experts are to comment.
- Assemble a monitor group to determine task objectives, develop questionnaires, etc.
- Choose the experts, making sure they have no vested interest in the outcome.
- Distribute the objectives, questionnaires, etc. to the experts for their initial set of opinions.
- The monitor team consolidates the opinions and redistributes the comments to the experts, making sure that the comments remain anonymous.
- Repeat steps 4 and 5 until a group consensus is reached.
Advantages
- This technique can be useful in eliminating personality clashes.
- This technique can be useful when powerful personalities are likely to dominate the discussion.
- Inputs from experts unavailable for a single meeting are included.
Limitations
- Arriving at a group consensus is time-consuming.
- Assembling the group participants is difficult/time-consuming.
Nominal Group Technique
Description The NGT is another tool used to reach a group consensus. When priorities or rankings must be established, this decision-making process can be used. NGT is similar to brainstorming and the Delphi technique, but it is a structured approach that is oriented toward more specialized problems. The group should be small (i.e., only 10 to 15 people), and every member of the group is required to participate. This technique is often categorized as a silent brainstorming session with a decision analysis process.
Application The nominal group technique is an effective tool for producing many ideas and/or solutions in a short time. The technique can be used for many of the same applications as brainstorming and the Delphi technique. Company internal technical problems can be solved, personality clashes can be overcome, and NGT can be used to develop new ideas to satisfy a particular problem.
Procedures The NGT is applied in the following manner:
- Generate the idea for discussion-a facilitator presents the problem and instructions to the team.
- The team quietly generates ideas for 5 to 15 minutes. No discussion is allowed and no one leaves until everyone is finished.
- The facilitator gathers the ideas round-robin and posts them in no particular order on a flip chart.
- The ideas are then discussed by the group; no arguments, just clarifications. Duplications are eliminated.
- Each member of the group silently sets priorities on the ideas.
- The group votes to establish the priority or rank of each idea.
- The votes are tabulated and an action plan is developed.
Advantages NGT is very effective in producing many new ideas/solutions in a short time.
Limitations
- Assembling the group participants is difficult/time-consuming.
- Limiting discussion often limits full understanding of others ideas, with consequent divergence of weighting factors as a likely result.
Force Field Analysis
Description The force field analysis is a technique that counts both the number and magnitude of positive and negative forces that effect the results of a proposed solution or change in process. The analysis of these positive and negative forces generally occurs after performing a brainstorming session or a cause and effect diagramming session.
This technique categorizes the identified forces as either positive or negative, and assigns a value
(weight) to each force. All positives and negatives are added and the more positive the total, the more
likely the proposed solution is the correct one. The more negative the total, the more likely the proposed
solution is not correct. A strategy is then developed to lessen the negative forces and enhance the
positive forces.
Application This analysis is often applied in determining which proposed solution, among many, will meet the least resistance. The number of forces should not be too high (i.e., less than 20) or other more sophisticated approaches should be considered. Application of the force field analysis requires a proposed solution and inputs to the process. These inputs might come from using group consensus techniques like those discussed in earlier sections. Also, assigning the value (weight) to each force might also require group consensus techniques.
Procedures The force field analysis is performed in the following manner:
- Identify the proposed solution or change in process.
- Determine the forces, positive and negative, that might effect the implementation of this proposed solution.
- Separate the forces into positive and negative lists and assign a value (weight) to each force. Arriving at these values may be achieved by use of a group consensus technique like the Delphi technique.
- Establish a strategy to lessen the negative forces and enhance the positive forces.
Advantages The force field analysis is useful in determining which proposed solution, among many, will meet the least resistance.
Limitations This technique is time-consuming in arriving at a consensus on the values (weights) of the forces, and is highly subjective.
Statistical Process Control
Description SPC is a method of using statistics applied to the results of a process to control the process. Historical data of the performance of the process (or operation of hardware) are statistically analyzed to predict future performance or to determine if a process is "in control." A process is defined as "in control" if there are only random sources of variation present in the process and the associated data. In these cases, the data can correctly be investigated with the standard methods of statistical analysis. If the data are not "in control," there is some special cause of variation present in the process, and this is reflected in the data from that process.
In these cases, this section on SPC assumes that the data variability is still reasonably distributed around the mean, and these procedures are applicable. If these procedures lead to a result of special cause variation at nearly every data point, these procedures cannot be correctly applied.
Application This technique is used to determine if special causes of variation are present in a process, or if all variation is random. In other words, SPC is used to ensure that a product is being produced consistently, or is about to become inconsistent. Thus, SPC can be used to isolate problems in a process before defective hardware is delivered. This technique can be used for measurement type data (real numbers) or attribute data. There are two types of attribute data - binomial data and poisson data.
- Binomial data have a given number of outcomes, e.g., three of four parts on an assembly can be defective.
- Poisson data have an unlimited number of possible outcomes, e.g., a yard of material may have 1, 10, or 100 flaws.
Procedures The basic steps for conducting SPC are:
- Decide how to group the data. Subgroups should be chosen to show the performance of the part or process of interest. For example, if a machine is producing several parts at a time, the parts produced at one time will be a logical subgroup.
- Construct a control chart and range chart.
- Determine and apply control limits to the data.
- Determine if any control limits are violated. If any control limits are violated, a special cause is indicated. In addition to the specific control limits, the analyst must examine the data plot for other visual indications of special causes in the data. Any particular pattern, for example, would indicate a special cause is present. The use of engineering judgment is critical to extracting the maximum amount of data from the SPC plots.
- Determine the special cause. This may require Pareto analysis or engineering judgment using past experience.
- Implement a fix for the special cause of variation.
- Plot the data to ensure that the fix has been effective.
Flowchart Analysis
Description A flowchart is a pictorial representation of the steps in a process where each step is represented by a block. The review of a flowchart allows the elimination of nonvalue
added steps. When prepared by a group, the chart represents a consensus. The flowchart analysis is a
useful tool for determining how a process works. By studying how process steps relate to each other,
potential sources of problems can often be identified.
Many different types of flowcharts are useful in the continuous improvement process. Flowcharts
often used are the top-down flowchart, the detailed flowchart, and the work flow diagram. The top-down
flowchart presents only the major and most fundamental steps in a process. This chart
makes it easy to visualize the process in a single, simple flow diagram. Key actions associated with each
major activity are listed below their respective flow diagram steps. A top-down flowchart can be
constructed fairly quickly and easily. This type of flowchart is generally developed before attempting to
produce the detailed flowcharts for a process. By limiting the top-down flowchart to key actions, the
probability of becoming bogged down in the detail is reduced.
Application This chart is used to provide a picture of the process prior to writing a procedure. Flowcharts should be created, then
procedures written to follow the flowchart. The chart should be included as an appendix in the
procedure. Flowcharts can be applied to anything from material flow to the steps it takes to service or
sell a product.
Procedures A flowchart is prepared in the following manner:
- A development team creates a diagram that defines the scope of the task to be undertaken. Also identified are the major inputs and outputs.
- Create a data flow diagram. Start with executive level data that are involved in the process, followed by department data and finally branch data.
- Using the data, create an initial model. The team should walk through the process and look for any details that need to be clarified, added, or deleted.
- Make a data dictionary. This ensures that everyone involved in the project has a consistent understanding of the terms and steps used.
- Add the process symbols.
- Revise, as necessary.
Advantages
- Flowcharts allow examination and understanding of relationships in a process.
- Flowcharts provide a step-by-step picture that creates a common understanding about how the elements of a process fit together.
- Comparing a flowchart to actual process activities highlights areas where policies are unclear or are being violated.
Limitations The flowchart development process can be time-consuming.
Work Flow Analysis
Description A WFA examines the work process for possible improvements in
performance and quality of work life. This technique is really a special case of flowcharting.
The goal is to overcome the excuses for not changing work habits on the part of the employee as well as
management. Such excuses are, "It has always been done this way," and "It's not my responsibility."
Application The analysis is performed in an employee/management
partnership, where the goal for each party is to improve productivity as well as the quality of work life.
The technique will work if executed by a partnership of management and employees.
Procedures A WFA is performed in the following manner:
- Collect data concerning the operation being analyzed. This can be done by observing the operation or asking questions, but not by reading an operations plan that would tell how the operation is supposed to be done.
- Flowchart the process.
- Research and collect ideas on how to improve the operation from any sources available.
- Define the desired performance versus the actual performance.
- Identify the gaps in performance and propose changes to eliminate these gaps.
- Analyze these changes by using a multifunctional team.
- Once the changes are agreed upon, prototype them on a small basis in a certain area or shift.
- Once the bugs are ironed out and the changes are operating smoothly, implement them on a large-scale basis.
- Flowchart the new operation and revise the operating procedure documentation to reflect the changes.
Advantages The technique may increase productivity and improve working conditions.
Limitations
- The technique requires cooperation between employees and management to be most successful.
- The observed operation may not be fully representative of a "typical" process that would occur without scrutiny.
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Disclaimer: This material is for training purposes only. Its purpose is to inform employers of best practices in occupational safety and health and general OSHA compliance requirements. This material is not, in any way, a substitute for any provision of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 or any standards issued by OSHA.
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